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When a tormenta sweeps in to Mexico City, the rain does not just fall, it insists. Gently at first with a mid-afternoon patter on windows and windscreens, then more urgently with an evening downpour that turns splashes into puddles, until finally – with a nighttime climax of thunder and lightning rolling down from the distant volcanos – the deluge gushes through gutters and gullies, transforming trickles in runnels into torrents in tunnels. The floods are a reminder of the natural order of things: water belongs here.
This geological, historical fact is a reason why the Aztecs built a city of floating gardens here 700 years ago that became known as “the Venice of the New World”. The vast lakes that once filled the plain were, however, steadily drained by settlers. In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores rapidly accelerated the process, and modern engineers have almost finished the task, replacing the lacustrine marshes with a grey sea of concrete, tarmac and steel that, in the central city alone, is now home to almost nine million residents.
As a result, supplies for drinking, washing, cooking and cleaning must be pumped up from hundreds of metres underground, or from a distance of more than 100km. Getting the required billions of litres up to this megalopolis – 2,400m above sea level – is one of the world’s great feats of hydro-engineering. If mastery over water is a marker of civilisation, then Mexico City is surely one of mankind’s most spectacular achievements.
Yet, from the point of view of sustainability and social equality, it is also among the more absurd failures. Discharging a resource that falls freely from the heavens and replacing it with exactly the same H2O from far away is expensive, inefficient, energy intensive and ultimately inadequate for the population’s needs. It also creates a paradox: although Mexico City has more rainy days than London, it suffers shortages more in keeping with a desert, making the price of each litre among the highest in the world – despite its often dire quality.
The growing costs – social, economic, health and environmental – are a source of stress and conflict. Government leaders and big businesses are pushing ahead with ever bigger hydro-engineering projects that upset conservationists and indigenous groups. Congress and NGOs are fighting over the possible privatisation of water. Meanwhile, shortages and floods are creating social tensions in the Federal District and its surrounding states.
Worldwide, water is now more valuable, and more stressed, than ever before. The need for new ways of dealing with the problems has never been more urgent. Few places demonstrate that more than Mexico City, where this most fundamental of elements flows through a system that grows more complex and more fraught by the day. From source to sewer, the course of each drop tells a heroic, tragic, unfinished story of urban growth and human development. Over a week, the Guardian has traced this path, revealing the triumphs of the past, the current battles, and the crisis looming in the future.
Cutzamala: stress at the source
We set off before dawn to the Cutzamala reservoir system, the biggest single source of water for Mexico City. Located 120km from the Federal District, we have to drive through urban sprawl for several hours before the morning gloom starts to lift and we suddenly dip down into a verdant valley of pink and purple cosmos sunflowers, grassy slopes and fir forests.
This is the land of the Mazahua, one of Mexico’s 62 main indigenous groups. Since the arrival of the first Spanish, they have seen their territory and resources steadily eroded, initially in the name of “civilisation”, now “development”. Today, this means being forced to share their rivers, streams and springs with one of the world’s thirstiest cities.
Where Mexico City gets its water
The first dam – Villa Victoria – was constructed in 1962 as a hydropower plant, but its role changed a decade or so later, when urban planners realised water was more valuable than electricity. Today, the energy generated by the dam is used to pump a small lake each day from sea level up 1,100 metres, above the highest point in England.
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It is both a military and an engineering operation. Underscoring the strategic importance, an army base sits next to Los Berros water treatment plant and pumping station at Cutzamala, which is surrounded by high walls, barbed wire and guard posts. The owners – the National Water Commission (better known as Conagua) – refuse us permission to visit, despite repeated requests in advance.
Instead, the Mazahua guide us around the perimeter, then drive us along the channel that takes the water from the Victoria reservoir to the purification plant. It is mostly covered with concrete slabs, but there are gaps. At one point, an unmarked water tanker fills up.
“We feel invaded,” says Manuel Araujo, a member of the Indigenous Frente Mazahua. “We used to live surrounded by nature, now we are surrounded by pylons and barbed wire.”
They have fought back. Most recently, several dozen Mazahua occupied the site of the chlorinisation plant for 15 days to demand potable water in every home in the community. Among them was Ofelia Lorenzo, who gets water just one day a week from a narrow hose that runs from below the ground to her garden. The rest of the time, she has to take a bucket down to a stream further down the valley, so she can bathe and wash her clothes. “It bothers me that they take water from here and I get nothing back. There is not even enough water in my home,” she says.
Lorenzo is a member of the Zapatista Army of Mazahua Women in Defence of Water, which is spearheading the public protests of their community. Dressing in traditional robes and posing with fake guns, their primary goal is to raise awareness in Mexico City about the problems faced by communities near the source.
“We noticed that the government didn’t pay much attention to the men, so we decided to join the struggle,” she says. “I joined the group in 2003 because many bad things were happening to our rivers. Our crops have been affected. There aren’t as many fish as before. Because they took the water from underground, the land is dry. It is all the fault of the Cutzamala system. Now, we’re asking the government to pay us back for what we’ve lost. We’re not fighting, we are just defending our rights.”
Water and land are at the centre of indigenous concerns in Mexico – and not just at Cutzamala. The Zapatista movement, which mounted an uprising against the state in the mid-1990s, has also joined in various “Defence of Water” campaigns, including water-related protests by the Xoxocotla in Morelos State, and the Yaqui and O’odham in Sonora.
They have won concessions. At Cutzamala, the government has built the Mazahua a community centre and fish farms, paved many roads and provided piped potable water to some homes. But leaders still feel they are being short-changed as more of their land is threatened.
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Another demonstration is scheduled soon against the planned expansion of the Cutzamala system, which currently provides about 30% of Mexico City’s water. Officials want this share to increase so they can replenish the central city’s aquifers, which have been depleted to alarming levels. This will mean tapping more distant rivers – and quite possibly more tension with other indigenous groups.
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Sacmex control centre: prime pumping
The stress surrounding our drop of water starts at the source. But there is more to come, not least the economic strain imposed by the long journey from Cutzamala to the Federal District.
From Los Berros potabilisation plant, it is pumped up to the highest point of the system – a 2,701-metre high oscillation tower. From there, it flows by gravity through one of three 235cm-diameter white pipes that take it more than 100km into the city. This is no easy task: the pipes and tunnels are 30 years-old and often need maintenance. Earthquakes, frequent in this region, can tilt them out of alignment – or wreck the system completely, as happened with the huge temblor in 1985.
This is definitely the biggest hydro-engineering challenge in Latin America, maybe the world.